Haiti Earthquake

Haiti Earthquake is one of the significant events that happened in 2010. The 7. 0 magnitude earthquake strikes Haiti on 13th January 2010, Wednesday. It destroyed Haiti’s capital, Port-au-Prince and many other residences. This 5th deadliest earthquake in the world killed over 100,000 Haitians and left many homeless or seriously injured. The dead were even buried in mass graves. Humanitarian aid, rescue and medical teams from all over the world gave their utmost help to Haiti immediately. On 22nd January, the search for survivors was then finally called off. Haiti Earthquake is caused mainly by natural causes. Haiti Earthquake occurred along the boundary between the Caribbean and North American plates. Therefore, according to a geophysicist, the two plates moved past each other and generated huge release of energy, causing the Haiti Earthquake. Not only the natural causes, Haiti’s location and environment also contributed to the earthquake. Based on research, 60% of Haiti’s buildings were unsound and Haiti often faced recurrent disasters like cyclone. Haiti also faced political instability as it is one of the poorest country in the western hemisphere and do not have good communication systems, ports and building style for earthquake resistance. Social causes like the schools and hospitals being unresilient to the earthquake and unprepared also caused the serious damage of Haiti. The Haiti Earthquake created a huge impact on Haiti’s economy. Haiti’s government had to spend approximately $7. 2 billion to $13. 2 billion on the rebuild of infrastructure. The earthquake also disrupted Haiti’s trade as the roads and ports were destroyed or strewn with dead bodies. Buildings, including the president's palace and tax headquarters, were reduced to rubbles. Children were seen digging into the sea of corpses to look for their parents and the injured were pleading in vain for medical help. The worst thing was the main prison had collapsed, thus inmates escaped and brought greater danger to all Haitians. Countries from all over the world helped in giving aid to Haiti. For example, The UNISDR cooperated with Bill Clinton to build disaster risk reduction tools for Haiti. This helped to reduce the impact of future disasters that might happen to Haiti. Singapore’s government came up with US$50,000 for the Haitians. However, Singapore did not do much other than giving a mere amount of US$50,000. The government’s initial decision to send rescue teams to Haiti was also cancelled as they felt that it was too late and they could not make useful contributions. This made me felt disappointed s even Indonesia sent aid worth US$22 million and a team of volunteers to help out in Haiti. China was even among the first at the scene with sniffer dogs, medics and monitoring equipment. Not only that, teens from all over the world also helped out. Singapore students from Canberra Secondary School and Dunman High helped to raise funds for Haitians and gave to charity, Mercy Relief and also organized donation drives. City Harvest Church and CityCare organi sation even send two medical teams to Haiti. For every purchase made in shops like Espirit, a donation of US$1 was also given to Haiti. Famous Hollywood stars like Brad Pitt and Angelina Jolie even went to Haiti personally to care for the Haitians and donated US$1 million to Doctor Without Borders. Judging from above, I personally think that the best solution is the building of disaster-risk tools. This will lessen the impact caused by disasters in the long run. Other solutions are also important but they were only temporary solutions. However, I felt that most importantly was to educate the Haitians on natural disasters as Haiti is very vulnerable to it. By continuously giving help to them, it is not an absolute solution. Perhaps countries who have faced these problems before could teach them the precautions to be taken, ways to calm down and act quickly but steadily when faced with disasters. Based on research, the supposedly more destructive Chilean Earthquake suffered lesser casualties than the Haiti Earthquake as they were well-prepared. The care and concern shown by everyone in the world would make the Haitians feel warm. The medical help provided by the medical and rescue teams were what Haitians needed the most. With the donations of many countries, Haitians definitely regained hope on rebuilding their homeland back. Haiti Earthquake Hope for children of Haiti On January 12 2010 a devastating tragedy occurred in our world. The beautiful country of Haiti was struck by a 7. 0 magnitude earthquake that changed the country and the lives of people living in Haiti. This earthquake stuck Haiti before five pm and was centred about 10 miles south east of port – au – prince which is the capital city of Haiti. This earthquake is known as one of most powerful earthquakes of the century, that it was felt in eastern parts of Cuba. Prior to the earthquake, the people of Haiti are living eighty percent under the poverty line(Curler, 2010). In results of the earthquake in Haiti, Haiti has been left in poorer economic condition than before. Due to this natural disaster many innocent lives were taken away. The number of casualties kept increasing as the bodies of children were being discovered under the destroyed rumble. The death total at greater than 220 000 people after the earthquake(save the children federation, 2010). Prior to the earthquake Haiti already struggled with 15 of its children population already orphaned or abandoned. This earthquake has caused orphanages to overflow with children with lack of supplies and materials to care for them. They need clothing, food shelter and all the basics necessities to care for them. This tragedy was traumatizing to children because they are so innocent and have less understanding of what’s happened. Hundreds of thousands of children have been displaced which is likely to have increased their sense of anxiety and fear, especially as aftershocks continue and buildings, including schools, continue to collapse( save the children federation , 2010). Many lives have been saved, as well as many bodies recovered from the rubble. Although there were various doctors and rescue teams who flew to Port-au-Prince to aid the victims of the tragedy, aid did not reach those who were in dire need of it. The aftermath of the earthquake was not the only problem for the Haitians of Port-au -Prince. Port-au-Prince's main prison was destructed by the earthquake leaving almost 4, 000 inmates, who survived the earthquake, roaming the streets â€Å"Rescue commander for Dominican Republic, Delfin Antonio Rodriguez stated, Our biggest problem is security Yesterday they tried to hijack some of our trucks. Today we were barely able to work in some places because of that. There's looting and people with guns out there, because this country is very poor and people are desperate†(Rayner 2010). Rescuers had even been ordered to stop working when the night fell because of fear of being attacked. Children have been profoundly affected by the events they have witnessed and Seeing and feeling buildings collapse, familiar faces dead and piled up around what used to be a neighbourhood and never seeing loved ones again. Haiti may seem far away for many but they are us, our human race, in need. Please give generously to our cause. Resources Rayner, G (2010). Haiti earthquake, death toll may hit 200,000. Retrieved march 25, 2010, from http://www. telegraph. co. uk/news/worldnews/centralamericaandthecaribbean/haiti/7003057/Haiti-earthquake-death-toll-may-hit-200000. html Simon, M & Edvige ,J (2010). 7. 0 quake hits Haiti, serious loss of life. Retrieved March 25, 2010, from http://www. cnn. om/2010/WORLD/americas/01/12/haiti. earthquake/index. html Curly, R (2010). Information and Resources on the Port Au Prince, Haiti Earthquake . Retrieved March 25, 2010, from http://gocaribbean. about. com/od/haiti/qt/Haitiearthquakeoverview2. htm Save the children federation inc(2010). Haiti Earthquake Children in Emergency . Retrieved March 25, 2010, from http://www. savethechildren. org/emergencies/latin-america-caribbean/haiti/earthquake-10/haiti-earthquake-children-in-emergency. html

Child Abuse and Neglect

This paper will discuss child abuse and neglect and the lasting effects left on a child. The main types of abuse and neglect explained are emotional abuse, psychological abuse, physical abuse, sexual abuse, medical neglect, educational neglect, emotional neglect, and physical neglect. Included are some warning signs of these different types of abuse and neglect and the legal definitions of each. It is important to understand that all of these forms of abuse and neglect are different and contain varying symptoms, signs, and effects.In addition, the paper discusses uggestions on how to mediate some of these forms of abuse and neglect, including better reporting programs and better parental education. With each different form of abuse and neglect children are left with a multitude of problems and obstacles to face in the future. Throughout the paper and use of statistics, it is evident that child abuse and neglect is a much more serious problem than most of the public is aware.Child Abu se and Neglect A Review of the Literature Between 1,460 and 2,555 children die every year due to child abuse and neglect; meaning that on average, between four and seven children die daily. In a classroom of 20 children, 13 will have been abused or neglected (Childhelp, 2013). These statistics should be shocking to anyone. Child abuse and neglect is an extremely understated problem in American society.The federal definition of child abuse and neglect is â€Å"any recent act or failure to act on the part of a parent or caretaker that results in death, serious physical or emotional harm, sexual abuse, or exploitation† or â€Å"an act or failure to act that presents an imminent risk of serious harm† (Gosselin, 2009, p. 93). Although this is the set definition, there can be different variations of t depending on specific state laws. Child abuse and neglect occur in many varying forms and do not always appear in the same manner.Some types of abuse and neglect include emotio nal abuse, psychological abuse, physical abuse, sexual abuse, educational neglect, medical neglect, emotional neglect, and physical neglect. This paper will discuss the signs of these various forms of child abuse and neglect as well as provide insight to the effects on children. Emotional Abuse Emotional and psychological abuse of children is one of the most commonly overlooked forms of abuse (American Humane Association, 2013).This may be due to the fact that there is no physical abuse occurring for people to notice. Also, not as many people know that emotional and psychological child abuse is happening. One of the biggest problems with forms of emotional and psychological abuse it that it is almost impossible to detect while it is occurring. Often times, it is not noticed until much later in a child's life. Emotional abuse is something that most people have experienced in their lifetime, but not to an extreme extent.Some examples of emotional abuse include â€Å"constant belittli ng, shaming, and humiliating a child, name alling, making negative comparisons to others, frequent yelling, threatening, or bullying, ignoring or rejecting a child as a punishment, and limited physical contact (hugs or kisses)† (Smith, 2013). Parents discipline their children in different ways and have varying methods of punishment, but to constantly belittle or threaten one's child is something much different. This type of abuse is a very painful one for children to experience because they often blame themselves and wonder why their parents are treating them this way.Emotional abuse can lead to impairments in hildren's emotional development and their sense of well-being. Psychological Abuse Along with emotional abuse, psychological abuse can be Just as harmful. Psychological abuse is more of a game of power, where parents control their children and make them believe, for example, that they are worthless. This leads to serious psychological problems and can cause many disorder s such as â€Å"anxiety, depression, withdrawal, or aggressive behavior† (Gosselin, 2009, p. 96).To some parents, using the old saying, â€Å"sticks and stones may break my bones but words can never hurt me† is ustification enough for this type of abuse. Most parents do not understand that their children are not able to handle ridicule and harassment as well as adults. To children, having their parents make comments to them can affect their psyche for the rest of their lives. In at least one study, â€Å"about 80% of 21 year olds that were abused as children met criteria for at least one psychological disorder† (Childhelp, 2013).Many parents who do abuse their children emotionally or psychologically believe that it is not abuse because they are making them stronger and preparing them for eople who will be mean and hurtful to them in the future. However, these parents are leaving their children with damaged mental health and social development problems that can l eave lifelong scars on their children. Physical Abuse Physical and sexual abuse of a child can leave these same psychological scars, but are also accompanied by physical scars as well. It is estimated that â€Å"more than 90% of Juvenile sexual abuse victims know their perpetrator in some way' (Childhelp, 2013).Children are vulnerable to this type of abuse because they trust the people ho are supposed to take care of them and look after them, making it extremely easy for their caretakers to take advantage of them. Physical abuse is generally defined as â€Å"any non-accidental physical injury to the child and can include striking, stabbing, kicking, burning, or biting the child, or any action that results in a physical impairment or death of a child such as shaking or throwing† (Gosselin, 2009, p. 100). Regarding physical abuse, many parents defend their abuse and claim that it is a form of discipline for the child.These parents do not understand the difference etween discip line and abuse, which can often indicate that they were disciplined the same way. Some signs of physical abuse in children are: â€Å"frequent injuries or unexplained bruises, welts, or cuts; injuries that have a pattern, such as a belt or hand; shies away from touch; seems afraid to go home; flinches at sudden movements; and a child who is always on alert for something bad to happen† (Smith, 2013). Physical abuse can go unnoticed for long periods of time because children can cover up their scars or hide their injuries, but most of the time, it is bound to be discovered.Sexual Abuse Sexual abuse, however, is not as noticeable as physical abuse. Sexual abuse can be defined as â€Å"the employment, use, persuasion, inducement, enticement, or coercion of any child to engage in, or assist any other person to engage in, any sexually explicit conduct or simulation of such conduct for the purpose of producing a visual deception of such conduct† (Gosselin, 2009, p. 101). This type of abuse is not as much about love and intimacy, but more about power and control.Children who are sexually abused are often under the control of their attacker and have trouble finding way out of the abusive situation. Some signs to look for in children who are sexually abused are: â€Å"trouble walking or sitting; displaying knowledge or interest in sexual acts inappropriate to his/her age, or even seductive behavior; making strong efforts to avoid a specific person; not wanting to change clothes in front of others or participate in physical activities; having an STD or being pregnant; or a child running away from home† (Smith, 2013).Most children who are sexual abused are abused by someone they know and love and often times, they do not know that this type of buse is wrong. The abusers in the situation will brainwash the children and make the abuse seem normal, or they will threaten the child into submission and make them keep the abuse a secret. Sexual abuse in child ren can lead to significant psychological and physical problems for them later in life, and these children often suffer from guilt and shame throughout their life as a result of this abuse.Educational Neglect Cases of child neglect differ from cases of abuse, but only in their execution, not their outcome for the child. According to the National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System â€Å"of the approximately 899,000 children in the United States who were victims of abuse and neglect in 2005, 62. 8 percent (564,765 children) suffered from neglect alone, including medical neglect† (American Humane Association, 2013). A fact that many people do not know it that educational neglect is one of the fastest growing types of child neglect and is punishable by law.This neglect is not referring to parents who cannot get their children to go to school because they run away or lies about going, this neglect is referring to the parents who do not make any effort to nroll their children in s chool or give them the mean to stay in school. This neglect can include â€Å"permitted chronic truancy, failure to enroll or other truancy, and inattention to special education need† (Gosselin, 2009, p. 98).One important aspect of this type ot neglect are the parents who tail to accept that their chil d nas an educational special need and should be placed in alternative classrooms or children who have learning disabilities. Education is important for children in their growth and development, and it is required by law that they must attend school until the age f 16 (public, private, homeschooled, or otherwise). Those parents who do not make education a part of their children lives are hurting them Just as much as if they were physically abusing or neglecting them.Education can predict the outcome of children's lives. Medical Neglect Another common form of neglect is medical neglect which can be characterized as â€Å"failing to provide any special medical treatment or mental health care need by the child† or â€Å"the withholding of medical treatment or nutrition from disabled infants with life-threatening conditions† (Gosselin, 2013, p. 99). This is a very serious form of eglect and is often seen in parents who do not take their children to the hospital or doctors when they are feeling ill or have broken bones.Some parents believe that time will heal wounds, or they think that herbal medicines can cure diseases Just as well as other medicines. There are, however, cases of parents who do not take their children to receive medical attention because they are the ones who inflicted the pain on their children. That case would turn into a form of abuse and neglect and is often seen together. Concerning medical neglect, it is important to understand that hildren need to receive yearly check-ups by doctors to get immunizations and tests done to ensure that the child is healthy.Parents who refuse to, or think they do not have the means to take the ir children to the doctors, hospital or urgent care facility are at risk for possibly killing their own children. It is seen more often in medical neglect cases that parents who did not take their children to these facilities were afraid of going to Jail because they causes the injuries to the child. Emotional Neglect Others forms of neglect include emotional and physical neglect.Emotional neglect can be categorized under circumstances including: â€Å"exposure to chronic or extreme intimate partner violence, permitting drug or alcohol use, or having a delay in psychological care† (Gosselin, 2009, p. 98). Emotional neglect to a child is one of the most painful aspects of neglect. When a parent ignores and terrorizes a child or does not want him or her anymore, they are neglecting the child and leaving him or her with emotional walls. It is not easy for children to understand why their parents are doing this, or what they did to deserve this type of punishment.If parents canno t provide their children with adequate care such as psychological help or counseling and instead are encouraging them to drink alcohol and smoke illegal substances, then these people should not be parents. Regarding emotional neglect, it is important to understand that not emotionally supporting children can make them unable to form proper relationships later in life. Physical Neglect In addition to emotional neglect, children face a great deal of physical neglect from their parents.Physical neglect accounts for the majority of cases of maltreatment Healy, 2013). Maltreatment occurs when children injure themselves or are faced with severe malnutrition as a result of a parent or caretaker. Physical neglect involves: â€Å"the failure to provide adequate food, clothing, shelter, hygiene, protection, or supervision† (Gosselin, 2009, p. 99). It can also include â€Å"child abandonment, inadequate supervision, rejection of a child leading to expulsion from the home and tailure to adequately provide tor the child's satety and physical and emotional needs† (Healy, 2013).Physical neglect is different from physical abuse because nstead of people inflicting pain on children, they are causing pain by ignoring them or not giving them everything they need to survive. These forms of neglect can harm children Just as much as the forms of abuse can, and all of them leave lasting scars. With physical neglect, parents often do not provide their children with their basic needs. Children not only need love and support, they also need food, clothing, and shelter. The main aspect lacking in child care regarding all of these forms of abuse and neglect are reporting programs and parental education.If there were more nhanced programs for people to report these forms of abuse and neglect, the statistics would most likely decrease significantly. Children do not know how to report abuse or neglect can often Just keep quiet, and the people they do report to do not always kno w the correct measures to take. It is important to educate not only our children, teachers, and the general public, but also parents. If parents were more educated in how to care for a child, or what is acceptable and not acceptable to do, these forms of abuse and neglect would also decrease.Parents who exhibit abuse or eglect on their children often claim that they did not know what they were doing was wrong and they did not think there was a problem with their forms of discipline. Everyone needs to be more educated on this topic and it is important to catch this abuse and neglect at the earliest stage possible to decrease the lasting effects on the child. Child Abuse and Neglect Child abuse is any act that endangers a child’s physical or emotional health and development. Child abuse and neglect can take place anywhere. The child often knows the abuser well a parent, relative, babysitter, or friend of the family. Child abuse and neglect crosses all ethnic, racial, social, and economic lines This book talks and expresses the examinations of child neglect in families and its relevance to research, policy and practice in the field of services to children and their families. The authors chose to explore this subject because child neglect is an over looked area of child welfare practice. Families neglect their children almost twice as frequently as they abuse their children. The four major types of maltreatment are physical abuse, neglect, sexual abuse and emotional abuse. Some states also specify substance abuse or abandonment by the caretaker as an element of abuse or neglect. Although any of the forms of child maltreatment may be found separately, they often occur in combination. The most recent statements and research indicate that 860,000 children were victims of abuse and neglect in the year 2006. The consequences of neglect to children are at least as serious as the consequences of abuse. Referring back to the article statement â€Å"In 2003 1,200 children died of abuse and neglect†. These fatalities were most often the result of neglect only. According to the article 685 of child fatalities due to maltreatment involved child neglect, as compared to 50% that involved. The focus of those working in the field like Child Protective Services, affiliated agencies that can take full custody and etc. In addition because of lack of information and investigations children are maltreatment have been on abuse, due to neglected children and their families and even fatal. It is the intention of the authors to present a comprehensive view of the current state regarding child neglect issues and to offer a rationale for directing focus to this overlooked and disregarded aspect of family relationships. It is time to refocus on these families, both to assist in healing these families and given the relationship between neglect and poverty. Author Cynthia Crosson-Tower, Ph. D My Thoughts I think child abuse is worst thing a child can experience because it scars them for life. Children should be protected and loved. Sadly, this is not lways the case, millions of children are abused every year thousands will die from the abuse. The various types of abuse and neglect are never ceasing, only growing. Just like in the article families are neglecting their children twice as much as the abuse. This very shocking and shameless. Many end up being abusers themselves, or try to kill the pain with drugs and alcohol. How many kids need to commit suicide before this count ry finally stands up and says enough. The number of children sexually abused physically abused neglected or murdered is astounding. I read couple of more articles about child abuse and online sexual predators. Whether it is physical or mental, abuse is wrong. Parents who abuse children should stop and take the time to get help because the child will suffer in the end. Many children in this world die or become emotionally unstable because of abuse in the home. Only half of the victims report the abuse to authorities or family members. After all, who will stand up for those who cannot stand up for themselves? We should all report any case of child abuse that we witness this way we can be saving lives. It is our responsibility to put an end to child abuse because child abuse is simply wrong, unethical, and should not be done.

Intimately oppressed Essay

Chapter 6: THE INTIMATELY OPPRESSED It is possible. reading standard histories. to bury half the population of the state. The adventurers were work forces. the landowners and merchandisers work forces. the political leaders work forces. the military figures work forces. The really invisibleness of adult females. the overlooking of adult females. is a mark of their submersed position. In this invisibleness they were something like black slaves ( and therefore break one's back adult females faced a dual subjugation ) . The biological singularity of adult females. like skin colour and facial features for Negroes. became a footing for handling them as inferiors. True. with adult females. there was something more practically of import in their biological science than skin color-their place as childbearers-but this was non plenty to account for the general push backward for all of them in society. even those who did non bear kids. or those excessively immature or excessively old for that. It seems that their physical features became a convenience for work forces. who could utilize. feat. and cherish person who was at the same clip retainer. comrade. and bearer-teacher-warden of his kids. Societies based on private belongings and competition. in which monogamous households became practical units for work and socialisation. found it particularly utile to set up this particular position of adult females. something kindred to a house slave in the affair of familiarity and subjugation. and yet necessitating. because of that familiarity. and long-run connexion with kids. a particular patronization. which on juncture. particularly in the face of a show of strength. could steal over into intervention as an equal. An subjugation so private would turn out difficult to deracinate. Earlier societies-in America and elsewhere-in which belongings was held in common and households were extended and complicated. with aunts and uncles and grandmas and grampss all life together. seemed to handle adult females more as peers than did the white societies that subsequently overran them. conveying â€Å"civilization† and private belongings. In the Zuni folk of the Southwest. for case. extended families- big clans-were based on the adult female. whose hubby came to populate with her household. It was assumed that adult females owned the houses. and the Fieldss belonged to the kins. and the adult females had equal rights to what was produced. A adult female was more unafraid. because she was with her ain household. and she could disassociate the adult male when she wanted to. maintaining their belongings. Womans in the Plains Indian folk of the Midwest did non hold farming responsibilities but had a really of import topographic point in the folk as therapists. herb doctors. and sometimes holy people who gave advice. When bands lost their male leaders. adult females would go captains. Womans learned to hit little bows. and they carried knives. because among the Sioux a adult female was supposed to be able to support herself against onslaught. The pubescence ceremonial of the Sioux was such as to give pride to a immature Sioux maiden: â€Å"Walk the good route. my girl. and the American bison herds broad and dark as cloud shadows traveling over the prairie will follow you†¦ . Be duteous. respectful. gentle and modest. my girl. And proud walking. If the pride and the virtuousness of the adult females are lost. the spring will come but the American bison trails will turn to grass. Be strong. with the warm. strong bosom of the Earth. No people goes down until their adult females are weak and discredited. . . . It would be an hyperbole to state that adult females were treated every bit with work forces ; but they were treated with regard. and the communal nature of the society gave them a more of import topographic point. The conditions under which white colonists came to America created assorted state of affairss for adult females. Where the first colonies consisted about wholly of work forces. adult females were imported as childbearers and comrades. In 1619. the twelvemonth that the first black slaves came to Virginia. 90 adult females arrived at Jamestown on one ship: â€Å"Agreeable individuals. immature and incorrupt†¦ sold with their ain consent to colonists as married womans. the monetary value to be the cost of their ain transit. † Many adult females came in those early old ages as apprenticed servants- frequently teenaged girls-and lived lives non much different from slaves. except that the term of service had an terminal. They were to be obedient to Masterss and kept womans. The writers of Americans Working Women ( Baxandall. Gordon. and Reverby ) describe the state of affairs: â€Å"They were ill paid and frequently treated impolitely and harshly. deprived of good nutrient and privateness. Of class these awful conditions provoked opposition. Populating in separate households without much contact with others in their place. apprenticed retainers had one primary way of opposition unfastened to them: inactive opposition. seeking to make every bit small work as possible and to make troubles for their Masterss and kept womans. Of class the Masterss and kept womans did non construe it that manner. but saw the hard behaviour of their retainers as moroseness. indolence. malignity and stupidity. † For case. the GeneralCourt of Connecticut in 1645 ordered that a certain â€Å"Susan C. . for her rebellious passenger car toward her kept woman. to be sent to the house of rectification and be kept to hard labour and harsh diet. to be brought away the following talk twenty-four hours to be publically corrected. and so to be corrected hebdomadal. until order be given to the contrary. † Even free white adult females. non brought as retainers or slaves but as married womans of the early colonists. faced particular adversities. Eighteen married adult females came over on the Mayflower. Three were pregnant. and one of them gave birth to a dead kid before they landed. Childbirth and illness plagued the adult females ; by the spring. merely four of those 18 adult females were still alive. Those who lived. sharing the work of constructing a life in the wilderness with their work forces. were frequently given a particular regard because they were so severely needed. And when work forces died. adult females frequently took up the men’s work every bit good. All through the first century and more. adult females on the American frontier seemed close to equality with their work forces. But all adult females were burdened with thoughts carried over from England with thesettlers. influenced by Christian instructions. English jurisprudence was summarized in a papers of 1632 entitled â€Å"The Lawes Resolutions of Womens Rights† : In this consolidation which we call marriage is a locking together. It is true. that adult male and married woman are one individual. but understand in what mode. When a little Brooke or small river incorporateth with Rhodanus. Humber. or the Thames. the hapless rill looseth her name†¦ . A adult female every bit shortly as she is married is called covert †¦ that is. â€Å"veiled† ; as it were. clouded and overshadowed ; she hath lost her family name. I may more genuinely. farre off. say to a married adult female. Her new ego is her superior ; her comrade. her maestro. . . . Julia Spruill describes the woman’s legal state of affairs in the colonial period: †The husband’s control over the wife’s individual extended to the right of giving her castigation. . . . But he was non entitled to bring down lasting hurt or decease on his married woman. . . . † As for belongings:â€Å"Besides absolute ownership of his wife’s personal belongings and a life estate in her lands. the hubby took any other income that might be hers. He collected rewards earned by her labour. . . . Naturally it followed that the returns of the joint labour of hubby and married woman belonged to the hubby. † The father’s place in the household was expressed in The Spectator. an influential periodical in America and England: â€Å"Nothing is more satisfying to the head of adult male than power or rule ; and †¦ as I am the male parent of a household †¦ I am perpetually taken up in giving out orders. in ordering responsibilities. in hearing parties. in administrating justness. and in administering wagess and punishments†¦ . In short. sir. I look upon my household as a patriarchal sovereignty in which I am myself both king and priest. † No admiration that Puritan New England carried over this subjugation of adult females. At a test of a adult female for make bolding to kick about the work a carpenter had done for her. one of the powerful church male parents of Boston. the Reverend John Cotton. said: â€Å" . . . that the hubby should obey his married woman. and non the married woman the hubby. that is a false rule. For God hath put another jurisprudence upon adult females: married womans. be capable to your hubbies in all things. † A best-selling â€Å"pocket book. † published in London. was widely read in the American settlements in the 1700s. It was called Advice to a Daughter: You must first put it down for a Foundation in general. That there is Inequality in Sexes. and that for the better Economy of the World ; the Men. who were to be the Law-givers. had the larger portion of Reason bestow’d upon them ; by which means your Sexual activity is the better prepar’d for the Conformity that is necessary for the public presentation of those Duties which seem’d to be most properly assign’d to it†¦ . Your Sexual activity wanteth our Reason for your Conduct. and our Strength for your Protection: Ours wanteth your Gendeness to soften. and to entertain us. †¦ Against this powerful instruction. it is singular that adult females however rebelled. Women Rebels have ever faced particular disablements: they live under the day-to-day oculus of their maestro ; and they are stray one from the other in families. therefore losing the day-to-day chumminess which has given bosom to Rebels of other laden groups. Anne Hutchinson was a spiritual adult female. female parent of 13 kids. and knowing about mending with herbs. She defied the church male parents in the early old ages of the Massachusetts Bay Colony by take a firm standing that she. and other ordinary people. could construe the Bible for themselves. A good talker. she held meetings to which more and more adult females came ( and even a few work forces ) . and shortly groups of 60 or more were garnering at her place in Boston to listen to her unfavorable judgments of local curates. John Winthrop. the governor. described her as â€Å"a adult female of a haughty and ferocious passenger car. of a agile humor and active spirit. and a really voluble lingua. more bold than a adult male. though in apprehension and opinion. inferior to many adult females. † Anne Hutchinson was put on test twice: by the church for unorthodoxy. and by the authorities for disputing their authorization. At her civil test she was pregnant and ill. but they did non let her to sit down until she was close to prostration. At her spiritual test she was interrogated for hebdomads. and once more she was ill. but challenged her inquirers with adept cognition O f the Bible and singular fluency. When eventually she repented in composing. they were non satisfied. They said: â€Å"Her penitence is non in her visage. † She was banished from the settlement. and when she left for Rhode Island in 1638. 35 households followed her. Then she went to the shores of Long Island. where Indians who had been defrauded of their land thought she was one of their enemies ; they killed her and her household. Twenty old ages subsequently. the one individual back in Massachusetts Bay who had spoken up for her during her test. Mary Dyer. was hanged by the authorities of the settlement. along with two other Religious society of friendss. for â€Å"rebellion. sedition. and assumptive push outing themselves. † It remained rare for adult females to take part openly in public personal businesss. although on the southern and western frontiers conditions made this on occasion possible. Julia Spruill found in Georgia’s early records the narrative of Mary Musgrove Mathews. girl of an Indian female parent and an English male parent. who could talk the Creek linguistic communication and became an advisor on Indian personal businesss to Governor James Oglethorpe of Georgia. Spruill finds that as the communities became more settled. adult females were thrust back further from public life and seemed to act more trepidly than earlier. One request: â€Å"It is non the state of our sex to ground profoundly upon the policy of the order. † During the Revolution. nevertheless. Spruill studies. the necessities of war brought adult females out into public personal businesss. Women formed loyal groups. carried out anti-British actions. wrote articles for independency. They were active in the run against the British tea revenue enhancement. which made tea monetary values unacceptably high. They organized Daughters of Liberty groups. boycotting British goods. pressing adult females to do their ain apparels and purchase merely American-made things. In 1777 there was a women’s opposite number to the Boston lea Party-a â€Å"coffee party. † described by Abigail Adams in a missive to her hubby John: One eminent. wealthy. ungenerous merchandiser ( who is a unmarried man ) had a hogshead of java in his shop. which he refused to sell the commission under six shillings per lb. A figure of females. some say a 100. some say more. assembled with a cart and short pantss. marched down to the warehouse. and demanded the keys. which he refused to present. Upon which one of them seized him by his cervix and tossed him into the cart. Upon his happening no one-fourth. he delivered the keys when they tipped up the cart and discharged him ; so opened the warehouse. hoisted out the java themselves. set it into the short pantss and drove off. †¦ A big multitude of work forces stood amazed. soundless witnesss of the whole dealing. It has been pointed out by adult females historiographers late that the parts of propertyless adult females in the American Revolution have been largely ignored. unlike the genteel married womans of the leaders ( Dolly Madison. Martha Washington. Abigail Adams ) . Margaret Corbin. called â€Å"Dirty Kate. † Deborah Sampson Garnet. and â€Å"Molly Pitcher† were unsmooth. low-class adult females. prettified into ladies by historiographers. When women's rightist urges are recorded. they are. about ever. the Hagiographas of privileged adult females who had some position from which to talk freely. more chance to compose and hold their Hagiographas recorded. Abigail Adams. even before the Declaration of Independence. in March of 1776. wrote to her hubby: †¦ in the new codification of Torahs which I suppose it will be necessary for you to do. I desire you would retrieve the ladies. and be more generous to them than your ascendants. Do non set such limitless power in the custodies of hubbies. Remember. all work forces would be autocrats if they could. If peculiar attention and attending are non paid to the ladies. we are determined to agitate a rebellion. and will non keep ourselves jump to obey the Torahs in which we have no voice of representation. However. Jefferson underscored his phrase â€Å"all work forces are created equal† by his statement that American adult females would be â€Å"too wise to purse their brows with political relations. † And after the Revolution. none of the new province fundamental laws granted adult females the right to vote. except for New Jersey. and that province rescinded the right in 1807. New York’s fundamental law specifically disfranchised adult females by utilizing the word â€Å"male. † While possibly 90 per centum of the white male population were literate around 1750. merely 40 per centum of the adult females were. Propertyless adult females had small agencies of pass oning. and no agencies of entering whatever sentiments of defiance they may hold felt at their subordination. Not merely were they bearing kids in great Numberss. under great adversities. but they were working in the place. Around the clip of the Declaration of Independence. four 1000 adult females and kids in Philadelphia were whirling at place for local workss under the â€Å"putting out† system. Womans besides were tradesmans and hosts and engaged in many trades. They were bakers. tinworkers. beer makers. sixpences. rope-makers. lumbermans. pressmans. undertakers. woodsmans. stay-makers. and more. Ideas of female equality were in the air during and after the Revolution. Tom Paine spoke out for the equal rights of adult females. And the pioneering book of Mary Wollstonecraft in England. A Vindication of the Rights of Women. was reprinted in the United States shortly after the Revolutionary War. Wollstonecraft was reacting to the English conservative and opposition of the Gallic Revolution. Edmund Burke. who had written in his Contemplations on the Revolution in France that â€Å"a adult female is but an animate being. and an carnal non of the highest order. † She wrote: I wish to carry adult females to endeavour to get strength. both of head and organic structure. and to convert them that soft phrases. susceptibleness of bosom. daintiness of sentiment. and polish of gustatory sensation. are about synonymous with names of failing. and that those existences who are merely the objects of commiseration and that sort of love. . . will shortly go objects of disdain. . . . I wish to demo that the first object of commendable aspiration is to obtain a character as a human being. regardless of the differentiation of sex. Between the American Revolution and the Civil War. so many elements of American society were changing-the growing of population. the motion due west. the development of the mill system. enlargement of political rights for white work forces. educational growing to fit the new economic needs-that alterations were bound to take topographic point in the state of affairs of adult females. In preindustrial America. the practical demand for adult females in a frontier society had produced some step of equality ; adult females worked at of import jobs-publishing newspapers. pull offing tanneries. maintaining tap houses. prosecuting in skilled work. In certain professions. like obstetrics. they had a monopoly. Nancy Cott Tells of a grandma. Martha Moore Ballard. on a farm in Maine in 1795. who â€Å"baked and brewed. pickled and preserved. spun and sewed. made soap and dipped candles† and who. in 25 old ages as a accoucheuse. delivered more than a 1000 babes. Since instruction took topographic point inside the household. adult females had a particular function at that place. There was complex motion in different waies. Now. adult females were being pulled out of the house and into industrial life. while at the same clip there was force per unit area for adult females to remain place where they were more easy controlled. The outside universe. interrupting into the solid cell of the place. created frights and tensenesss in the dominant male universe. and brought away ideological controls to replace the relaxation household controls: the thought of â€Å"the woman’s topographic point. † promulgated by work forces. was accepted by many adult females. As the economic system developed. work forces dominated as mechanics and shopkeepers. and aggressiveness became more and more defined as a male trait. Women. possibly exactly because more of them were traveling into the unsafe universe outside. were told to be inactive. Clothing manners developed- for the rich and in-between category of class. but. as ever. there was the bullying of manner even for the poor-in which the weight of women’s apparels. girdles and half-slips. emphasized female separation from the universe of activity. It became of import to develop a set of thoughts. taught in church. in school. and in the household. to maintain adult females in their topographic point even as that topographic point became more and more unsettled. Barbara Welter ( Dimity Convictions ) has shown how powerful was the â€Å"cult of true womanhood† in the old ages after 1820. The adult female was expected to be pious. A adult male composing in The Ladies’ Repository: â€Å"Religion is precisely what a adult female needs. for it gives her that self-respect that bests suits her dependance. † Mrs. John Sandford. in her book Woman. in Her Social and Domestic Character. said: â€Å"Religion is merely what adult female needs. Without it she is of all time ungratified or unhappy. † When Amelia Bloomer in 1851 suggested in her feminist publication that adult females wear a sort of short skirt and bloomerss. to free themselves from the burdens of traditional frock. this was attacked in the popular women’s literature. One narrative has a miss look up toing the â€Å"bloomer† costume. but her professor admonishes her that they are â€Å"only one of the many manifestations of that wild spirit of socialism and agricultural radicalism which is at present so rife in our land. † In The Young Lady’s Book of 1830: â€Å" . . . in whatever state of affairs of life a adult female is placed from her cradle to her grave. a spirit of obeisance and entry. bendability of pique. and humbleness of head. are required from her. † And one adult female wrote. in 1850. in the book Greenwood Leaves: â€Å"True feminine mastermind is of all time timid. doubtful. and clingingly dependent ; a ageless childhood. † Another book. Remembrances of a Southern Matron: â€Å"If any wont of his irritated me. I spoke of it one time or twice. calmly. so bore it softly. † Giving adult females â€Å"Rules for Conjugal and Domestic Happiness. † one book ended with: â€Å"Do non anticipate excessively much. † The woman’s occupation was to maintain the place cheerful. keep faith. he nurse. cook. cleansing agent. dressmaker. flower organizer. A adult female shouldn’t read excessively much. and certain books should be avoided. When Harriet Martineau. a reformist of the 1830s. wrote Society in America. one referee suggested it he kept off from adult females: â€Å"Such reading will faze them for their true station and chases. and they will throw the universe back once more into confusion. † Womans were besides urged. particularly since they had the occupation of educating kids. to he loyal. One women’s magazine offered a award to the adult female who wrote the best essay on â€Å"How May an American Woman Best Show Her Patriotism. † It was in the 1820s and 1830s. Nancy Cott tells us ( The Bonds of Womanhood ) . that there was an spring of novels. verse forms. essays. discourses. and manuals on the household. kids. and women’s function. The universe exterior was going harder. more commercial. more demanding. In a sense. the place carried a yearning for some Utopian yesteryear. some safety from immediateness. Possibly it made credence of the new economic system easier to be able to see it as lone portion of life. with the place a oasis. In 1819. one pious married woman wrote: â€Å" . . . the air of the universe is toxicant. You must transport an counterpoison with you. or the infection will turn out foetal. † All this was non. as Cott points out. to dispute the universe of commercialism. industry. competition. capitalist economy. but to do it more toothsome. The cult of domesticity for the adult female was a manner of lenifying her with a philosophy of â€Å"separate but equal†-giving her work every bit every bit of import as the man’s. but separate and different. Inside that â€Å"equality† there was the fact that the adult female did non take her mate. and one time her matrimony took topographic point. her life was determined. One miss wrote in 1791: â€Å"The dice is about to be cast which will likely find the hereafter felicity or wretchedness of my life†¦ . I have ever anticipated the event with a grade of sedateness about equal to that which will end my present being. † Marriage enchained. and kids doubled the ironss. One adult female. composing in 1813: â€Å"The thought of shortly giving birth to my 3rd kid and the attendant responsibilities I shall he called to dispatch hurts me so I feel as if I should drop. † This despondence was lightened by the idea that something of import was given the adult female to make: to leave to her kids the moral values of self- restraint and promotion through single excellence instead than common action. The new political orientation worked ; it helped to bring forth the stableness needed by a turning economic system. But its really being showed that other currents were at work. non easy contained. And giving the adult female her sphere created the possibility that she might utilize that infinite. that clip. to fix for another sort of life. The â€Å"cult of true womanhood† could non wholly wipe out what was seeable as grounds of woman’s low-level position: she could non vote. could non have belongings ; when she did work. her rewards were one-fourth to one-half what work forces earned in the same occupation. Womans were excluded from the professions of jurisprudence and medical specialty. from colleges. from the ministry. Puting all adult females into the same category-giving them all the same domestic domain to cultivate- created a categorization ( by sex ) which blurred the lines of category. as Nancy Cott points out. However. forces were at work to maintain raising the issue of category. Samuel Slater had introduced industrial whirling machinery in New England in 1789. and now there was a demand for immature girls-literally. â€Å"spinsters†-to work the spinning machinery in mills. In 1814. the power loom was introduced in Waltham. Massachusetts. and now all the operations needed to turn cotton fiber into fabric were under one roof. The new fabric mills fleetly multiplied. with adult females 80 to 90 per centum of their operatives-most of these adult females between 15 and 30. Some of the earliest industrial work stoppages took topographic point in these fabric Millss in the 1830s. Eleanor Flexner ( A Century of Struggle ) gives figures that suggest why: women’s day-to-day mean net incomes in 1836 were less than 371/2 cents. and 1000s earned 25 cents a twenty-four hours. working 12 to sixteen hours a twenty-four hours. In Pawtucket. Rhode Island. in 1824. came the first known work stoppage of adult females factory workers ; 202 adult females joined work forces in protesting a pay cut and longer hours. but they met individually. Four old ages subsequently. adult females in Dover. New Hampshire. struck entirely. And in Lowell. Massachusetts. in 1834. when a immature adult female was fired from her occupation. other misss left their looms. one of them so mounting the town pump and devising. harmonizing to a newspaper study. â€Å"a flaring Mary Wollstonecraft address on the rights of adult females and the wickednesss of the ‘moneyed aristocracyà ¢â‚¬â„¢ which produced a powerful consequence on her hearers and they determined to hold their ain manner. if they died for it. † A diary kept by an unsympathetic occupant of Chicopee. Massachusetts. recorded an event of May 2. 1843: Great turnout among the misss. . . after breakfast this forenoon a emanation preceded by a painted window drape for a streamer went round the square. the figure 16. They shortly came by once more. . . so numbered forty-four. They marched around a piece and so dispersed. After dinner they sallied Forth to the figure of 42 and marched around to Cabot. †¦ They marched around the streets making themselves no recognition. †¦ There were work stoppages in assorted metropoliss in the 1840s. more hawkish than those early New England â€Å"turnouts. † but largely unsuccessful. A sequence of work stoppages in the Allegheny Millss near Pittsburgh demanded a shorter working day. Several times in those work stoppages. adult females armed with sticks and rocks broke through the wooden Gatess of a fabric factory and stopped the looms. Catharine Beecher. a adult female reformist of the clip. wrote about the mill system: Let me now present the facts I learned by observation or enquiry on the topographic point. I was at that place in mid- winter. and every forenoon I was awakened at five. by the bells naming to labour. The clip allowed for dressing and breakfast was so short. as many told me. that both were performed hastily. and so the work at the factory was begun by lamplight. and prosecuted without remittal boulder clay 12. and chiefly in a standing place. Then half an hr merely allowed for dinner. from which the clip for traveling and returning was deducted. Then back to the Millss. to work till seven o’clock. †¦ it must be remembered that all the hours of labour are spent in suites where oil lamps. togedier with from 40 to 80 individuals. are wash uping the healthful rule of the air †¦ and where the air is loaded with atoms of cotton thrown from 1000s of cards. spindles. and looms. Middle-class adult females. barred from higher instruction. began to monopolise the profession of primary-school instruction. As instructors. they read more. communicated more. and instruction itself became insurgent of old ways of believing. They began to compose for magazines and newspapers. and started some ladies’ publications. Literacy among adult females doubled between 1780 and 1840. Women became wellness reformists. They formed motions against dual criterions in sexual behaviour and the victimization of cocottes. They joined in spiritual organisations. Some of the most powerful of them joined the antislavery motion. So. by the clip a clear women's rightist motion emerged in the 1840s. adult females had become adept o rganizers. fomenters. talkers. When Emma Willard addressed the New York legislative assembly in 1819 on the topic of instruction for adult females. she was beliing the statement made merely the twelvemonth before by Thomas Jefferson ( in a missive ) in which he suggested adult females should non read novels â€Å"as a mass of trash† with few exclusions. â€Å"For a similar ground. excessively. much poesy should non be indulged. † Female instruction should concentrate. he said. on â€Å"ornaments excessively. and the amusements of life. . . . These. for a female. are dancing. pulling. and music. † Emma Willard told the legislative assembly that the instruction of adult females â€Å"has been excessively entirely directed to suit them for exposing to advantage the appeals of young person and beauty. † The job. she said. was that â€Å"the gustatory sensation of work forces. whatever it might go on to be. has been made into a criterion for the formation of the female character. † Reason and faith teach us. she said. that â€Å"we excessively are primary beings †¦ non the orbiters of work forces. † In 1821. Willard founded the Troy Female Seminary. the first recognized establishment for the instruction of misss. She wrote subsequently of how she disquieted people by learning her pupils about the human organic structure: Mothers sing a category at the Seminary in the early mid-thirtiess were so shocked at the sight of a student pulling a bosom. arterias and venas on a chalkboard to explicate the circulation of the blood. that they left the room in shame and discouragement. To continue the modestness of the misss. and save them excessively frequent agitation. heavy paper was pasted over the pages in their text editions which depicted the human organic structure. Women struggled to come in the all-male professional schools. Dr. Harriot Hunt. a adult female doctor who began to pattern in 1835. was twice refused admittance to Harvard Medical School. But she carried on her pattern. largely among adult females and kids. She believed strongly in diet. exercising. hygiene. and mental wellness. She organized a Ladies Physiological Society in 1843 where she gave monthly negotiations. She remained individual. withstanding convention here excessively. Elizabeth Blackwell got her medical grade in 1849. holding overcome many slights before being admitted to Geneva College. She so set up the New York Dispensary for Poor Women and Children â€Å"to give to hapless adult females an chance of confer withing doctors of their ain sex. † In her first Annual Report. she wrote: My first medical audience was a funny experience. In a terrible instance of pneumonia in an aged lady I called in audience a kindhearted doctor of high standing. . . . This gentleman. after seeing the patient. went with me into the parlor. There he began to walk about the room in some agitation. crying. â€Å"A most extraordinary instance! Such a one ne'er happened to me before ; I truly do non cognize what to make! † I listened in surprise and much perplexity. as it was a clear instance of pneumonia and of no unusual grade of danger. until at last I discovered that his perplexity related to me. non to the patient. and to the properness of confer withing with a lady doctor! Oberlin College pioneered in the admittance of adult females. But the first miss admitted to the divinity school at that place. Antoinette Brown. who graduated in 1850. found that her name was left off the category list. With Lucy Stone. Oberlin found a formidable obstructionist. She was active in the peace society and in antislavery work. taught colored pupils. and organized a debating nine for misss. She was chosen to compose the beginning reference. so was told it would hold to be read by a adult male. She refused to compose it. Margaret Fuller was possibly the most formidable rational among the women's rightists. Her get downing point. in Woman in the Nineteenth Century. was the apprehension that â€Å"there exists in the heads of work forces a tone of experiencing toward adult female as toward slaves†¦ . † She continued: â€Å"We would hold every arbitrary harasser thrown down. We would hold every way unfastened to Woman every bit freely as to Man. † And: â€Å"What adult female needs is non as a adult female to move or govern. but as a nature to turn. as an mind to spot. as a psyche to populate freely and unimpeded. . . . † In the class of this work. events were set in gesture that carried the motion of adult females for their ain equality rushing alongside the motion against bondage. In 1840. a World Anti-Slavery Society Convention met in London. After a ferocious statement. it was voted to except adult females. but it was agreed they could go to meetings in a curtained enclosure. The adult females sat in soundless protest in the gallery. and William Lloyd Garrison. one emancipationist who had fought for the rights of adult females. Saturday with them. It was at that clip that Elizabeth Cady Stanton met Lucretia Mott and others. and began to put the programs that led to the first Women’s Rights Convention in history. It was held at Seneca Falls. New York. where Elizabeth Cady Stanton lived as a female parent. a homemaker. full of bitterness at her status. declaring: â€Å"A adult female is a cipher. A married woman is everything. † She wrote subsequently: I now to the full understood the practical troubles most adult females had to postulate with in the stray family. and the impossibleness of woman’s best development if. in contact. the main portion of her life. with retainers and kids. . . . The general discontent I felt with woman’s part as married woman. female parent. housekeeper. doctor. and religious usher. the helter-skelter status into which everything fell without her changeless supervising. and the jaded. dying expression of the bulk of adult females. impressed me with the strong feeling that some active steps should he taken to rectify the wrongs of society in general and of adult females in peculiar. My experiences at the World Anti-Slavery Convention. all I had read of the legal position of adult females. and the subjugation I saw everyplace. together swept across my soul†¦ . I could non see what to make or where to begin-my merely idea was a public meeting for protest and treatment. An proclamation was put in the Seneca County Courier naming for a meeting to discourse the â€Å"rights of woman† the 19th and 20th of July. Three hundred adult females and some work forces came. A Declaration of Principles was signed at the terminal of the meeting by 68 adult females and 32 work forces. It made usage of the linguistic communication and beat of the Declaration of Independence: When in the class of human events. it becomes necessary for one part of the household of adult male to presume among the people of the Earth a place different from that they have hitherto occupied †¦We clasp these truths to be axiomatic: that all work forces and adult females are created equal ; that they are endowed by their Godhead with certain unalienable rights ; dial among these are life. autonomy and the chase of felicity. . . . The history of world is a history of perennial hurts and trespasss on the portion of adult male toward adult female. holding in direct object the constitution of an absolute dictatorship over her. To turn out this. allow facts be submitted to a blunt universe. . . . Then came the list of grudges: no right to vote. no right to her rewards or to belongings. no rights in divorce instances. no equal chance in employment. no entryway to colleges. stoping with: â€Å"He had endeavored. in every manner that he could. to destruct her assurance in her ain powers. to decrease her self-respect and to do her willing to take a dependent and low life†¦ . † And so a series of declarations. including: â€Å"That all Torahs which prevent adult female from busying such a station in society as her scruples shall order. or which place her in a place inferior to that of adult male. are contrary to the great principle of nature. and hence of no force or authorization. † A series of women’s conventions in assorted parts of the state followed the 1 at Seneca Falls. At one of these. in 1851. an aged black adult female. who had been born a slave in New York. tall. thin. have oning a grey frock and white turban. listened to some male curates who had been ruling the treatment. This was Sojourner Truth. She rose to her pess and joined the outrage of her race to the outrage of her sex: That adult male over at that place says that adult female needs to be helped into passenger cars and lifted over ditches. . . . Cipher of all time helps me into passenger cars. or over mud-puddles or gives me any best topographic point. And a’nt I a adult female? Expression at my arm! I have ploughed. and planted. and gathered into barns. and no adult male could head me! And a’nt I a adult female? I would work every bit much and eat every bit much as a adult male. when I could acquire it. and bear the cilium every bit good. And a’nt I a adult female?I have borne 13 kids and seen mutton quads most all sold off to bondage. and when I cried out with my mother’s heartache. none but Jesus heard me! And a’nt I a adult female? Therefore were adult females get downing to defy. in the 1830s and 1840s and 1850s. the effort to maintain them in their â€Å"woman’s sphere. † They were taking portion in all kinds of motions. for captives. for the insane. for black slaves. and besides for all adult females.

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Assignment- Drowning in a Sea of Information - Essay Example computers. While information overload is certainly a reality, artificial intelligence and other mechanisms which allow the sorting and prioritization of information can help in reducing this burden. In essence, the problem is to develop such systems which are as intelligent or perhaps more intelligent than human beings. The business side of the problem of information overload can be handled through data mining and the application of relevance which allow companies and business professional to decide which information is important and which is not. At the present time in the field of artificial intelligence, it is reasonable to say that while some AI systems mimic human intelligence, there is no system in the world which surpasses a human in all aspects of thought, intelligence or even social interaction. However, it is also plausible to say that the rate of development of current machines means that at some point the future, there will certainly be a time when AI based systems become more intelligent than the humans who created them in the first place. Kurzweil’s The Age of Spiritual Machines (1999) presents a very detailed look at the future of artificial intelligence in terms of where they are going and what can be expected of them in coming decades. He focuses on machine intelligence and shows that the evolution of machines has taken a similar path to the evolution of biological creatures but at a much more accelerated pace. Kurzweil describes how computational and processing power has grown exponentially in the past and records were broken as expectations were shattered. For instance, it was once thought that no computer would ever be able to beat a grand master champion at chess but the best human player in the world has been defeated by a computer specifically created for that purpose. For machines which are specifically created to handle

The Impact of Culture on Conservatism Assignment

The Impact of Culture on Conservatism - Assignment Example l with the presentation of those principles encompasses judgment yet cultural dissimilarities may result in alterations in the submission of those criterions. For instance, in relating a regulation that needs acknowledgment of a dependent damage when its realization is â€Å"plausible,† accountants in more highly traditional countries might make a mistake on the side of traditionalism by instituting a lower possibility verge as compared to bookkeepers in less traditional nations. Different segments in which values might result in dissimilarities in the use of monetary recording regulations include segments in which approximation and decision are involved, guarantee cost, irrecoverable outstanding, income recognition, asset damage checks, outdated portfolios, etc. Cancan’s in-house inspectors are required to remain conscious that bookkeepers in these diverse nations might entertain value-oriented prejudices in the manner in which they relate the company’s bookkeeping rules. Bookkeepers in Korea and Brazil may be increasingly traditional (higher UA, lower IND) in relating Cancan’s accounting rules than the bookkeepers in Sweden (lower UA, higher IND). The in-house inspector needs to draw a timetable to do checks to define whether this prejudice is operative. Exigencies, guarantee amount, doubtful outstanding, income appreciation, asset weakening tests, and outdated portfolios are all segments which need significant decision-making capacity. Bookkeepers in Korea and Brazil may be increasingly traditional (higher UA, lower IND) in relating Cancan’s accounting rules than the bookkeepers in Sweden (lower UA, higher IND). The in-house inspector needs to draw a timetable to do checks to define whether this prejudice is ope rative. Exigencies, guarantee amount, doubtful outstanding, income appreciation, asset weakening tests, and outdated portfolios are all segments which need significant decision-making capacity. Besides, the bookkeepers in Brazil and Korea may be less inclined to give evidence demanded by the in-house inspectors due to of an upper range of confidentiality.

NOGO Railroad Case Analysys Form Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

NOGO Railroad Case Analysys Form - Essay Example Dave is wary of Allen’s intentions and is torn between making the required changes and not making those changes. However, the situation is not new to NOGO Railways as it has struggled with the same issues (highlighted later) since its inception. It is only that Dave has now been promoted to such a position where he must address the problems encountered. 2. Problem NOGO Railways faces a myriad of problems which can best be separated as surface-level problems and deeper or micro problems. At the macro level, the company faces an outdated and ill designed system of organizational policies and practices, thereby reflecting a poor HR system. This is the backbone of all other problems such as high debt and resistance to change. Owing to faulty (and biased) recruitment practices, productivity has been low and unnecessary positions have been created for the sake of compensating family and relatives. One such example is that of Fireman’s position whose only task was to take char ge of the engine in the event of assistance required by the engineer (Brown). The major problems facing Dave (and the company) are that employee expenses have been on a rise and that there was friction amongst NOGO’s employees with respect to change management. Next, it is important to analyze the micro level issues that NOGO is faced with. One of these is featherbedding which is defined as the practice of restricting output of work so as to create more jobs and reduce the chances of unemployment. Another problem pertained to the absence of a formal, structured recruitment process that objectively selected candidates with the right ‘fit’ for the job. These faulty hiring procedures gave way to favoritism. This meant that employees whom Dave worked with were related to each other in some way as spouses, children, brothers or cousins. This practice tends to create a disconnected workforce with ties based on their relations and not work. 3. Causes The presence of a u nionized workforce meant that the union acted as a resistance to any changes implemented by the management. This was clearly causing resistance to change which was one of the macro-level problems confronting NOGO. The union terms were guaranteeing complacency and minimizing worker efficiency owing to a contract that workers would get pay for 40 hours of work even if there was no availability of such work (Brown). These contract terms (as settled by the unions) meant that NOGO was covering the living expenses of their away-from-home, overtime employees as well as duplication of tasks such that clerks would have no task to carry out in the presence of telegraph operators. Furthermore, the union as well as improperly crafted contracts provided workers unnecessary cushion of refusing to do a task just because it wasn’t part of their job description. This was directly contributing to the high employee expenses which, again, was one of the major problems facing NOGO. Furthermore, t he lack of HR planning and strategy was at the backbone of a host of problems encountered by the company. For one thing, the lack of HR planning led to overstaffing leading to greater number of employees being hired than was necessary. This bred â€Å"featherbedding†. The employee contract was not designed appropriately with conditions such as prohibition of women clerks to work directly with train and radio communication personnel reducing the

The Science and Art of Managing Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The Science and Art of Managing - Assignment Example On a broader context, the article provides an in-depth knowledge pertaining to the importance of structured organizations and the process through which they operate. In addition, it also highlighted the importance of planning along with organization which plays a very important role. Psychological facets such as motivation can prove to provide great deal of support to the employees in enhancing their performance in the organizations. It also plays a leading role in influencing the employees in order to reach their individual goals along with the goals of the organization. On a different context, the article showcased the managers need to perform multiple tasks and responsibilities in the organization. Additionally, managers are also liable to get respect based on their level of expertise. However, they are also liable for practicing different aspects of management that vary as per the level of difficulty. The article provided a basic idea pertaining to the factor that managerial auth orities need to earn the trust of the management to function in an operative manner (Weiss, 2007). B. CRITIQUE ‘The Science and Art of Managing’ ‘The Science and Art of Managing’ written by W. H. Weiss provided with a lot of valuable insights about management. The overall analysis will be followed by a critique in relation to the facts gathered from the above mentioned article. While providing a summary of the article, all those important elements pertaining to the organizational traits have been learnt. The article additionally provided a great deal of support in order to attain a fair amount of knowledge regarding the basic principles of management. The article very well showed the different functions that managers need to perform however there were no practical aspects of management functions that were noticed. Providing managerial examples from real organizations would have proved to be very beneficial. It would have resulted in the enhancement of the q uality of the article as well. It can be critically acclaimed that the article provided a strong base of theoretical knowledge however it cannot be fully applied in practical terms as there were no such readings determining the applicability of all the approaches in the practical fields. Different principles along with diverse management functions highlighted upon the multiple roles which managers have to perform in order to operate in a well-organized manner. All of these aspects were showed in a proper format however, the article did not highlight any instances which prove that all these aspects were applied in real organizations to trigger high amount of output (Weiss, 2007). In relation to the professional opinion, it can be said that management and business experience can facilitate an individual to carry out decisive managerial roles in an efficient manner. Management principles are vital in an organizational context as it enables to demarcate the specific needs for a set of e mployees based on their inherent traits. Moreover, it can be affirmed that management skills are required to function in an operative manner as managerial functions require prompt decision in varying critical circumstances. It can be critically stated that although managers need to perform an assortment of roles in an organizational context however the level of success in these roles can be ascertained by their expertise and inherent skills. Contextually, the aspect of motivation as a key determinant

Ethnicity in Film Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Ethnicity in Film - Essay Example This film was significant on a number of levels. It was a major Hollywood release budgeted that brought in a box office of 23 million dollars and yet it managed to honestly depict the events of a highly politically charged event. It also examined the complexity seeking self identity in a group long persecuted in examining a character played by Val Kilmer who was at odds with his native heritage preferring to deny its existence and through the events of the story showed the self discovery of racial pride and identity of this character. This paper will explore the issues and themes raised by the film as they relate to the depiction of native culture. It will examine how the film showed the fight for ethnic identity in the face of outside pressures that are often hostile. This illustration of the complex nature of racial identity and political context are further heightened by the political context of the story. It will also highlight how the quest to depict native American ethnicity on film is still occasionally marred by stereotypes. The quest for identity for the protagonist is the main theme of the story. Val Kilmer's character Ray Levoi is of part Sioux descent and at the onset of the film he strongly denies his heritage. He does not talk about his heritage to his superior played by venerable actor and playwright Sam Shepard. He is shown to have become mainstream with his fashionable haircut and designer sunglasses and formal clothing. His initial contact with the people of the reservation his shown to be officious and unfamiliar. Grahame Greene's character,Walter Crow Horse who plays the town sheriff. does not like the intial presentation but something in him senses the inner conflict in the character. There is a marked tension in the character who is referred to as the Washington Redskin"" in hushed tones to refer to both his heritage and to his remarkable success in the bureau up to that point. With his succesful mainstream background Ray Levoi's character sees the events of the crime that he is sent to in vestigate through the official outlook of his boss. Slowly through the Graham Greene's character he awakens to his own heritage. After the intial presentation of the character there are series of events and individuals that slowly change his perspective on the purity of his own reasons for being there. The intitail reason for trip to the Reserve by the FBI is to capture Jimmy Looks Twice a chararcter who is believed to have murdered some FBI agents and is on the lam in the reservation. Apart from the steady tutelage of the town sherrif it is the idealisitc young teacher, Maggie Eagle Bear who appears to do the most to sway the protagonist's thinking. She is sincere and intelligent and she speaks to him of the real injustices that are going on in the reserve. The look at the poverty on the reserve is not spared in Apted's honest cinematography. She speaks to him at an educated level which he has come to respect from his own successes but unlike him she has not turned her back on her heritage. More than this, Ray's character sees her clear kindness and lack of rancor and it moves him. From this encounter on, Ra y starts to question his own motives for being on the reserve and

Pepsi Cola International (PCI) in Ukraine Essay

Pepsi Cola International (PCI) in Ukraine - Essay Example Pepsi Cola International (PCI) in Ukraine One of the major challenges faced by Pepsi Cola International in this region is the poor infrastructure because of which too much time is taken to distribute goods throughout the region. The other challenge that Pepsi has been facing in Ukraine is about storing of goods because of lack of sufficient warehouse. Pepsi has also problems in distributing its goods in village areas of the country as people in such regions are not able to get the supplies of Pepsi despite of the fact that they want to drink the Cola. With inefficient logistics and supply chain in the country, different intermediaries have come up which are trying to capitalize on the situation by making the most of this opportunity and trying to sell the cola after keeping some profit. Thus, this is making the price of Pepsi to increase. In addition to this problems faced by one of the largest beverages companies of the world, firms in Ukraine have to face substantial tax rate in the country as the tax is imposed on 90% of the total sales of the company and therefore organisations are forced to misrepresent their actual sales and actual financial statements to improve their profitability. Currently the Coca Cola has built a bottling plant to capture the market of Ukraine despite of the fact that Pepsi has been the most favourite cola in the country for years. Therefore with the introduction of Coca Cola in the Ukraine market, the management is currently business practices and evaluating whether a change is necessary or not.

Boeing-Case Study Essay Example for Free

Boeing-Case Study Essay The key elements of the resistance to change described in the Perrier case are: Lack of communication and the companies inability to inform the employees of what changes affected production at Perrier, the company made excessive changes, the company introduces a series of changes and the people felt the changes were unnecessary, and they were unsure if they would still have the required skills to continue to work for the company. Perrier has made quite a fair amount of changes in a short period of time and they will need to be aware that some people may not agree to the change and might not work to their full potential. Most of Perriers employees did not think the changes were necessary for the organization to grow. There were some employees who thought Perriers conducted unnecessary changes to impact their normal workload. The latter change was considered as the lack of conviction that change is needed. There was also the Perceived Negative Effect on Interest -this resistance to change will be affected by peoples perceptions of the likely effect of the change on their interests, a term that can cover a wide range of factors including their authority, status, rewards(including salary), opportunity to apply expertise, membership of friendship networks, autonomy, and security. The employees at Perrier were concerned with the implication of the change for themselves and how it may affect their own interests, rather than considering effects for the success of the business. 2. Construct a change management strategy for dealing with this situation. In so doing, identify what approach (es) to managing resistance you recommend and provide a clear justification for your choice. An article by Kotter and Schlesinger provides the classic description on managing the resista

Impact of Foreign Aid on Economic Growth

Impact of Foreign Aid on Economic Growth Abstract The massive expenditures on foreign aid programs by developed nations and international institutions, in combination with the perceived lack of results from these disbursements, raise important questions as to the actual effectiveness of monetary assistance to less developed countries (LDCs). In this analysis, I focus on 119 low- and medium-development countries, and measure the impact that foreign aid has on their growth rates of gross domestic product, using dummy variables for geography and conflict in a geometric lag model. The results indicate that foreign aid donations do have a positive impact on the economic growth of the recipient nation. The effect is extremely modest, however, and other factors such as armed conflict and geography can easily mitigate this impact, in some cases to the extent that foreign aid becomes detrimental to economic growth. Further analysis of the results indicate that this impact is quickly felt, with half of the total impact of foreign aid felt in approximately six months. Key Words: Foreign aid, economic growth, economic development 1. Introduction Over the last half century, foreign aid has emerged as a dominant strategy for alleviating poverty in the third world. Not coincidentally, during this time period major international institutions, such as the United Nations, World Bank, and International Monetary Fund gained prominence in global economic affairs.  [1]  Yet it seems that sixty years later, the lesser developed countries (LDCs) of the world continue to suffer from economic hardship, raising questions of whether foreign aid is a worthwhile and effective approach to boosting growth and development in recipient economies. Research on the subject has attempted to draw an empirical connection between foreign aid and economic growth. Despite these efforts, however, there is no solid consensus among scholars on the actual effectiveness of foreign aid inflows.  [2]   The term foreign aid can imply a number of different activities, ranging from humanitarian support in the wake of natural disasters to military assistance and arms donations.  [3]  For the purposes of this analysis, however, I refer to the standard definition of official development assistance, or aid that is aimed at increasing economic development, and has a grant component of at least 25% of the total aid package.  [4]  Critics of development assistance cite a variety of reasons why it is a poor strategy for combating global poverty. Some argue that it can breed corruption, weaken accountability, and cause government to become excessively large.  [5]  Nonetheless, as researchers Hansen and Tarp (2000) write, it is neither analytically defensible or empirically credible to argue from the outset that aid never works.  [6]  Indeed, a number of studies have shown a positive relationship between foreign aid and economic growth, especially in countries which have respons ible economic policies regarding trade, inflation, and other macroeconomic concerns. The purpose of this analysis is to study the effects of foreign aid inflows on real gross domestic product growth rates. It differs from existing research in two key ways. First, I utilize a geometric lag model to capture the continued impact of foreign aid inflows for years after its initial introduction into the economy.  [7]  Second, I incorporate several dummy variables for geography, political stability, and development to determine their additional impact on foreign aids effectiveness in growing GDP. 2. Literature Review There are two contrasting sides to this debate: one which argues that aid has a positive effect on economic growth, with even more impact in countries with sound economic and trade policies; and another which contends that foreign aid causes corruption, encourages rent-seeking behavior, and erodes bureaucratic institutions. A renewed interest in explaining cross-country economic growth emerged in the early 1990s, with numerous studies attempting to answer the foreign aid question. To date, however, there is no consensus among scholars as to the actual effects of foreign aid on economic growth. There have been several prominent studies which find a causal link between foreign aid and economic growth. Perhaps the most well-known of these was performed by two researchers for the World Bank, Craig Burnside and David Dollar (1997). They found that foreign aid enhances economic growth, so long as good fiscal policies are in place. These policies can include maintaining small budget deficits, controlling inflation, and being open to global trade.  [8]  Durbarry, et. al. (1998) also found a positive association between foreign aid and economic growth, and confirmed Burnside and Dollars finding of conditionality on good economic policy. The study also concluded, however, that the degree to which aid impacts GDP depends largely on other factors as well, such as geography.  [9]  Ali and Isse (2005) further confirmed the findings of Burnside and Dollar. The study also demonstrated, though, that aid is subject to decreasing marginal returns, indicating a threshold beyond which development assistance can become detrimental to economic growth.  [10]   Not all research has shown a positive relationship to exist between aid and growth. Even before Burnside and Dollars monumental findings, a study by Peter Boone (1994) found that aid-intensive African countries experienced zero per capita economic growth in the 1970s and 80s, despite foreign aid actually increasing (as measured by share of GDP).  [11]  Additionally, Knack (2001) found that high levels of foreign aid can erode bureaucratic and institutional quality, triggering corruption, and encouraging rent-seeking behavior.  [12]   There is also evidence that the effects of foreign aid can be mitigated by other non-economic factors. Situations of state failure, such as ethnic conflict, genocide or politicide, and revolution can all potentially influence the extent to which aid impacts growth. George Mason Universitys Political Instability Task Force (PITF) created a binary dataset indicating in which countries and during what years these events take place. According to the PITF, an ethnic conflict requires the clash of two separate ethnic, religious, or nationalistic factions, and also must meet two threshold criteria: 1,000 people must be mobilized for armed conflict, and at least 1,000 people per year must have died as a direct result of this conflict. Similarly, revolutions are defined as episodes of violent conflict between political groups in hopes of overthrowing the current regime, and must meet the same threshold criteria as ethnic wars. Finally, genocide and politicides are defined in a slightly differ ent manner. These events occur when the group in power carries out sustained policies that target ethnic, religious, or political rivals, ultimately resulting in the deaths of a substantial portion of one of those groups.  [13]   Easterly and Levine (1997) studied the effects of high ethnic fractionalization on economic growth. By fractionalization, they mean the probability that two randomly chosen people from a population will be of different ethno-linguistic backgrounds. Easterly and Levine conclude that movement from heterogeneity to homogeneity (decreasing fractionalization) results in better schooling, more efficient infrastructures, and more developed financial systems and foreign exchange markets.  [14]  According to their findings, then, it is entirely possible that ethnic conflict, in its attempt to move away from ethnic diversity and towards ethnic homogeneity, will actually improve economic growth. Despite their findings, however, the instability of the regime could still negatively impact the degree of aids effectiveness. Not a lot of attention is paid to genocide, politicide, and revolution and their effects on growth in the literature. Moreover, there has been virtually no research performed on this question as it concerns the effectiveness of aid. It is reasonable to believe, though, that resources (including foreign aid) are siphoned off by the dominant party and used for individual benefit rather than for economically efficient activities, as intended. Furthermore, out of respect for state sovereignty, these events are not likely to prompt a major international response, which would perhaps eliminate local control over resources and allow them to be used productively. Ethnic conflict, on the other hand, typically ignores state boundaries. One study by Gurr (1993) estimated that over two-thirds of identified ethnic communal groups in the world have kindred in another country. The spread across state borders allows other states to intervene without violating state sovereignty, which could positively impact how resources are used, and ultimately, economic growth. Additionally, a countrys geographic location can influence economic performance; nations that are landlocked, for instance, are at a natural disadvantage in global trade. Sachs and Warner (1996) write, Landlocked countries, in particular, face very high costs of shipping, since they must pay road transport costs across at least on international boundary in addition to sea freight costs. Although air shipments can help overcome many of these problems, only certain goods can be economically shipped by air, and most countries still import and export the majority of goods by the sea.  [15]   A report by the UN Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (1999) specifically mentions the positive relationship between aid and growth in landlocked countries, noting that they are at a disadvantage for these reasons, as well.  [16]  Due to their geographical position, then, landlocked countries could potentially benefit from foreign assistance, as it may fill the gap in trade that they experience relative to countries with easy access to international trade. 3. Methodology 3.1 Data I direct the focus of this analysis to low- and medium-development countries as defined by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in its Human Development Index (HDI).  [17]  These nations were selected since they are the most likely to be recipients of foreign aid, whereas high-development nations are the most likely to be donors. I select the HDI as a basis for classification because in addition to income, the index accounts for life expectancy as measured by infant mortality rates, and educational attainment as measured by adult literacy rates and gross enrollment ratios for primary, secondary, and tertiary schools. This provides for a more thorough understanding of a countrys stage of development and a comprehensive measure of quality of life.  [18]  In all, 119 countries of the 177 analyzed by the UNDP (67%) meet the development criteria and were included in this study.  [19]   Due to data availability issues, I restrict the range of this study to the period from 1980 to 2003. With 119 cross sections, there is a potential 2,856 observations over this time span. After taking into account missing data for the independent variables included in the model, 1,760 remain, or about 62%. A vast majority of the missing data is a result of the overall lack of information regarding Sub-Saharan Africa and Soviet bloc countries during the early 1980s. Furthermore, I aim to measure the impact of foreign aid on average, across both time and countries. Thus, I employ pooled data analysis. I collect the data in annual format from several sources. Most of the data come from the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD)  [20]  and the International Monetary Fund (IMF).  [21]  Table 1 below lists the variables included in this study and the source from which they were gathered: Table 1: Data Sources Variable Unit Source Gross Domestic Product Growth Rate IMF Official Development Assistance Millions $US UNCTAD Household Consumption Growth Rate UNCTAD Government Expenditures Growth Rate UNCTAD Exports*Petroleum Exporter Growth Rate UNCTAD Imports Growth Rate UNCTAD Agricultural Production Growth Rate UNCTAD Gross Capital Formation Growth Rate UNCTAD Inflation Growth Rate IMF Openness to Trade  [22]   Share of GDP UNCTAD Energy Consumption Per Capita Millions of BTUs Energy Information Agency, U.S. Dept of Energy Major Petroleum Exporter Dummy 1=Yes, 0=Otherwise UNCTAD Non-Tropics Dummy  [23]   1=Yes, 0=Otherwise IUCN World Conservation Union Foreign Direct Investment Inflows Millions $US UNCTAD Ethnic Conflict Dummy 1=Yes, 0=Otherwise Political Instability Task Force, University of Maryland Genocide Dummy 1=Yes, 0=Otherwise Political Instability Task Force, University of Maryland Revolution Dummy 1=Yes, 0=Otherwise Political Instability Task Force, University of Maryland Landlocked Country Dummy 1=Yes, 0=Otherwise UNCTAD Low Development Dummy 1=Yes, 0=Otherwise United Nations Development Programme Data for household consumption, government expenditures, exports, imports, agricultural production, and gross capital formation were only available in share of GDP format. Since I aim to explain growth rates in GDP, however, percentage changes in the dollar amounts of each of these variables would be more appropriate. Thus, I transform these numbers into growth rates as well.  [24]   3.2 Model Specification I assume that inflows of foreign aid will continue to impact the economy for years after its initial introduction, but at a decreasing rate. It would therefore be unsuitable to use an ordinary least squares model, since it would only take into account aid inflows in the year they were received and disregard the continued impact that foreign aid has on the economy in the years after its introduction. To effectively capture this rationale, I use a geometric lag model which incorporates an infinite number of lags for each variable, but weights each lag in a geometrically declining fashion. The general form of this type of model is: (1) Note that in the model a weight is attached to each lag (ÃŽÂ »), a value between zero and one that diminishes geometrically as time passes. Mathematically, this model is the same as:  [25]   (2) This simpler form, however, shows the dependent variable Y on the right side of the equation. Since Y is already shown to have an error component in (1), this simplification introduces a stochastic regressor into the model, requiring two-stage least squares (TSLS) regression. In order to ensure the instruments required for TSLS are non-stochastic, I lag each one period. Thus, to the observer at time t, values for instruments at t-1 are fixed. In other words, these instruments are stochastic but predetermined. 3.3 Expected Results I expect to find a positive relationship between foreign aid and economic growth on average, as indicated by most prior research on this subject. I further anticipate, however, that aid will have a detrimental effect on low-development countries since they lack efficient infrastructures and institutions which might make foreign aid donations more effective. I expect ethnic conflict, genocide and revolution to negatively influence the effectiveness of foreign aid, but leave open the possibility that ethnic conflict could positively influence aids impact based on Easterlys study. Furthermore, I expect landlocked countries to experience additional positive gains from foreign aid, since they are at a trade disadvantage. 4. Results and Analysis The results of the TSLS regression are shown below in Table 2: Table 2: TSLS Regression Results Parameter Estimate Std. Error t-Statistic Prob. Constant Term 0.091 0.400 0.228 0.820 GDP(-1) [Lambda] 0.233 0.087 2.692 0.007 Household Consumption 6.307 2.241 2.814 0.005 Government Expenditures 4.505 1.305 3.452 0.001 Exports*Petroleum Exporter 9.825 1.866 5.266 0.000 Imports -3.746 0.963 -3.891 0.000 Agricultural Production 10.976 1.992 5.510 0.000 Gross Capital Formation 7.262 0.834 8.703 0.000 Inflation -0.001 0.000 -2.282 0.023 Openness to Trade 0.020 0.005 4.301 0.000 Energy Consumption -0.013 0.004 -3.212 0.001 Energy Cons.*Low Dev. -0.052 0.014 -3.822 0.000 Less than Half of Land in Tropics (1=Yes) 0.742 0.326 2.275 0.023 Foreign Direct Investment 0.000 0.000 2.124 0.034 Foreign Aid 0.001 0.000 3.233 0.001 Foreign Aid*Ethnic Conflict 0.001 0.000 2.202 0.028 Foreign Aid*Genocide*Low Dev. -0.017 0.009 -1.948 0.052 Foreign Aid*Revolution -0.001 0.000 -2.731 0.006 Foreign Aid*Landlocked 0.002 0.001 1.847 0.065 Foreign Aid*Landlocked*Low Dev. -0.003 0.001 -2.320 0.021 R-squared 0.415 S.E. of regression 4.535 Adjusted R-squared 0.408 Durbin-Watson stat 2.069 The model can be written as in general terms as follows: (3) Where: GDP = Gross Domestic Product Growth Rate (for country i at time t) ODA = Official Development Assistance (for country i at time t) DUMMY = Vector for Dummy Variables (for country i at time t) Z = Vector for All Other Variables (for country i at time t) The results of the regression indicate that approximately 42% of the variation in GDP growth rates is explained by the variables included in the model, as evidenced by the R-squared value. Further, each coefficient estimate is significant at the 0.05 level, with the exception of a few borderline cases and the constant term. These coefficients are also consistent with my expectations, however the coefficient for the ethnic conflict dummy did turn out to be in harmony with Easterlys study of ethnic fractionalization. The Durbin-Watson statistic fails to conclusively determine the presence of serial correlation. Further analysis of the residuals, however, indicates that it is not a statistically significant problem.  [26]  The model was also tested for the presence of heteroskedasticity, both across time and cross sections using the Breusch-Pagan Test. The results of this test fail to show statistically significant evidence of heteroskedasticity.  [27]  Multicollinearity was investigated using a correlation matrix of the regressors, but no major evidence of this anomaly was detected, either.  [28]   The results provide insight as to foreign aids effectiveness in a number of ways. Most obvious is that it is has a positive, though modest effect on economic growth, significant at the 0.01 level. Increasing foreign aid by $1 million US will result in an increase in GDP of approximately 0.001%, ceteris paribus. According to the data, the average annual amount of official development assistance received over all years and countries is approximately $570 million US. In this case, aid is estimated to increase growth in GDP by approximately 0.6%. As shown in Table 3, however, this impact can be greatly diminished by other factors, in some cases to the point where aid actually becomes detrimental to growth. Using the baseline case of a country with no ethnic conflict, revolution, or genocide, which is not landlocked, and does not suffer from low development, I estimate the additional impacts of any of those circumstances on economic growth. Those factors with N/A listed under Impact were not statistically significant at the 0.05 level.  [29]   Table 3: Factors Influencing Aid Effectiveness Factor Impact Overall Impact of Aid + Additional Factor(s) on GDP Ethnic Conflict 0.001 0.002 Ethnic Conflict in Low Development Countries N/A N/A Genocide/Politicide N/A N/A Genocide/Politicide in Low Development Countries -0.017 -0.016 Revolution -0.001 0.000 Revolution in Low Development Countries N/A N/A Landlocked Country 0.002 0.003 Landlocked Country with Low Development -0.003 -0.002 The model indicates that foreign assistance actually becomes detrimental to growth in situations where there is genocide or politicide in low development nations, as predicted. I attribute this to the fact that resources are typically controlled by the dominant party in genocidal conflicts, and it is likely that aid dollars are siphoned off and used for their own benefit instead of productive and efficient activities. Revolutionary conflict eliminates entirely the impact aid has on the economy, resulting a net effect of about zero. I argue that this is the case because the institutions required to effectively utilize foreign assistance are in jeopardy during a major transfer of power, reducing their ability to act efficiently and distribute aid dollars according to the countrys best interests. Interestingly, ethnic conflict actually increases the effectiveness of aid. This finding is consistent with Easterlys study of ethnic fractionalization and its impact on economic growth. In landlocked countries, aid is particularly effective, tripling the extent to which it impacts economic growth. As Sachs and Warner pointed out, landlocked countries are limited in their ability to engage in global trade. Thus, it seems reasonable that foreign aid positively impacts growth in these areas since their capacity to engage in trade is restricted. However, in low-development countries that are landlocked, this relationship no longer holds. This indicates that whatever benefits aid has in landlocked countries is reversed in low-development countries, possibly due to poor institutional quality, corruption, or other factors. As for other variables besides foreign aid, the model shows the effect of foreign direct investment (FDI) on economic growth is surprisingly small; an increase of only 0.00003% in GDP for every $1 million US invested. In contrast, foreign aid boosts GDP by 0.001% with the same amount of money. This indicates that foreign aid has a substantially greater impact on growth than foreign direct investment, all else equal. According to the model, being open to trade seems to be a much more effective strategy in growing the economy, even more so than foreign aid and FDI. It is important to note, however, that since openness to trade is measured as a share of GDP, the impact is not directly comparable that of foreign aid or FDI, since economies included in this study vary greatly in size. To quantify how quickly foreign aid impacts the economic growth of a country, I calculate the median lag as outlined by Davies and Quinlivian (2006).  [30]  This measure estimates how quickly half of the impact of foreign assistance is felt, and is calculated as follows: Median Lag = = 0.477 (4) A median lag of 0.477 indicates that in approximately 5.7 months, half of the entire impact of foreign aid on GDP growth will be realized. Half of the remaining impact is then felt in another 5.7 months, and so on, as the cumulative impact of the aid asymptotically approaches 100%. This phenomenon is illustrated in Chart 1 below. Graph 1: Cumulative Impact of Foreign Aid on Growth The median lag indicates that aid can quickly impact an economy, but for a relatively short amount of time. After only two years of circulation in the recipient economy, over 95% of the total impact of foreign aid is experienced. 5. Conclusions and Suggestions for Future Research The purpose of this analysis was to determine the effects of development assistance on economic growth. The model developed in this paper provides evidence supporting the contention that foreign aid positively impacts economic growth in the developing world. Therefore, it is not in the interest of developed countries and international bodies to discontinue aid programs. Moreover, as Gunning (2004) points out, it would be extremely difficult for a donor country to stop aid since it would be seen by both the domestic and foreign populations as punishing an already poor country.  [31]   The model also shows, however, that the effects of aid on economic growth are modest, and buying economic growth through foreign aid would be incredibly inefficient and expensive. For instance, using foreign aid alone to increase GDP by 1% in a country would require a foreign aid package of approximately $1 billion US. With almost 120 countries identified as low- and medium-development, spurring economic growth in developing world to desirable levels would be an enormous expenditure. This also assumes that the negative effects of conflict and geography shown to be significant in the model do not apply, and ignores the potential problems of aid dependence, corruption, and bureaucratic erosion that research has associated with high levels of foreign aid. The aforementioned studies by Burnside and Dollar (1997) and others have shown aid to be more effective in sound economic policy environments. Thus, donor governments and multilateral institutions should continue to push economic reforms and trade liberalization on recipient governments. Not only will this improve the effectiveness of foreign aid according to these studies, but it will also result in less aid being required. The armed conflict dummies indicate, with the exception of ethnic conflict, that state failure and political instability reverse the positive effect of aid, even making it detrimental to economic growth in some cases. Therefore, donor governments should be aware of the political situations in recipient countries, and work with international bodies to ensure as much stability as possible. Further, since geography is essentially fixed, foreign aid donations to landlocked countries should be designed to facilitate improvements in transportation infrastructures, which increase their capacity to engage in trade. Future research should further explore the role of sound economic policies and good governance in aid effectiveness. Scholars should also explore other ways of quantifying climate, tropical geography, and governance to provide for additional testing of potential impacts on the effectiveness of foreign aid. Finally, future study of foreign aid should also investigate its effects on economic development, instead of growth. Doing so will shed light on the question of whether aid actually improves the quality of life in lesser developed countries.